Lithium-ion Safety Concerns

When Sony introduced the first lithium-ion battery in , they knew of the potential safety risks. A recall of the previously released rechargeable metallic lithium battery was a bleak reminder of the discipline one must exercise when dealing with this high energy-dense battery system.

Pioneering work for the lithium battery began in , but is was not until the early 's when the first non-rechargeable lithium batteries became commercially available. Attempts to develop rechargeable lithium batteries followed in the eighties. These early models were based on metallic lithium and offered very high energy density. However, inherent instabilities of lithium metal, especially during charging, put a damper on the development. The cell had the potential of a thermal run-away. The temperature would quickly rise to the melting point of the metallic lithium and cause a violent reaction. A large quantity of rechargeable lithium batteries had to be recalled in after the pack in a cellular released hot gases and inflicted burns to a man's face.

Because of the inherent instability of lithium metal, research shifted to a non-metallic lithium battery using lithium ions. Although slightly lower in energy density, the lithium-ion system is safe, providing certain precautions are met when charging and discharging. Today, lithium-ion is one of the most successful and safe battery chemistries available. Two billion cells are produced every year.

Lithium-ion cells with cobalt cathodes hold twice the energy of a nickel-based battery and four-times that of lead acid. Lithium-ion is a low maintenance system, an advantage that most other chemistries cannot claim. There is no memory and the battery does not require scheduled cycling to prolong its life. Nor does lithium-ion have the sulfation problem of lead acid that occurs when the battery is stored without periodic topping charge. Lithium-ion has a low self-discharge and is environmentally friendly. Disposal causes minimal harm.

Long battery runtimes have always been the wish of many consumers. Battery manufacturers responded by packing more active material into a cell and making the electrodes and separator thinner. This enabled a doubling of energy density since lithium-ion was introduced in .

The high energy density comes at a price. Manufacturing methods become more critical the denser the cells become. With a separator thickness of only 20-25µm, any small intrusion of metallic dust particles can have devastating consequences. Appropriate measures will be needed to achieve the mandated safety standard set forth by UL . Whereas a nail penetration test could be tolerated on the older cell with a capacity of 1.35Ah, today's high-density 2.4Ah cell would become a bomb when performing the same test. UL does not require nail penetration. Lithium-ion batteries are nearing their theoretical energy density limit and battery manufacturers are beginning to focus on improving manufacturing methods and increasing safety.

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Recall of lithium-ion batteries

With the high usage of lithium-ion in cell phones, digital cameras and laptops, there are bound to be issues. A one-in-200,000 failure rate triggered a recall of almost six million lithium-ion packs used in laptops manufactured by Dell and Apple. Heat related battery failures are taken very seriously and manufacturers chose a conservative approach. The decision to replace the batteries puts the consumer at ease and lawyers at bay. Let's now take a look at what's behind the recall.

Sony Energy Devices (Sony), the maker of the lithium-ion cells in question, says that on rare occasions microscopic metal particles may come into contact with other parts of the battery cell, leading to a short circuit within the cell. Although battery manufacturers strive to minimize the presence of metallic particles, complex assembly techniques make the elimination of all metallic dust nearly impossible.

Figure 1: Lithium-ion battery damages a laptop.
Safety issues are enticing battery manufacturers to change the manufacturing process. According to Sony, contamination of Cu, Al, Fe and Ni particles during the manufacturing process may cause an internal short circuit.

A mild short will only cause an elevated self-discharge. Little heat is generated because the discharging energy is very low. If, however, enough microscopic metal particles converge on one spot, a major electrical short can develop and a sizable current will flow between the positive and negative plates. This causes the temperature to rise, leading to a thermal runaway, also referred to 'venting with flame.'

Lithium-ion cells with cobalt cathodes (same as the recalled laptop batteries) should never rise above 130°C (265°F). At 150°C (302°F) the cell becomes thermally unstable, a condition that can lead to a thermal runaway in which flaming gases are vented.

During a thermal runaway, the high heat of the failing cell can propagate to the next cell, causing it to become thermally unstable as well. In some cases, a chain reaction occurs in which each cell disintegrates at its own timetable. A pack can get destroyed within a few short seconds or linger on for several hours as each cell is consumed one-by-one. To increase safety, packs are fitted with dividers to protect the failing cell from spreading to neighboring cells.

Safety level of lithium-ion systems

There are two basic types of lithium-ion chemistries: cobalt and manganese (spinel). To achieve maximum runtime, cell phones, digital cameras and laptops use cobalt-based lithium-ion. Manganese is the newer of the two chemistries and offers superior thermal stability. It can sustain temperatures of up to 250°C (482°F) before becoming unstable. In addition, manganese has a very low internal resistance and can deliver high current on demand. Increasingly, these batteries are used for power tools and medical devices. Hybrid and electric vehicles will be next.

The drawback of spinel is lower energy density. Typically, a cell made of a pure manganese cathode provides only about half the capacity of cobalt. Cell and laptop users would not be happy if their batteries quit halfway through the expected runtime. To find a workable compromise between high energy density, operational safety and good current delivery, manufacturers of lithium-ion batteries can mix the metals. Typical cathode materials are cobalt, nickel, manganese and iron phosphate.

Let me assure the reader that lithium-ion batteries are safe and heat related failures are rare. The battery manufacturers achieve this high reliability by adding three layers of protection. They are: [1] limiting the amount of active material to achieve a workable equilibrium of energy density and safety; [2] inclusion of various safety mechanisms within the cell; and [3] the addition of an electronic protection circuit in the battery pack.

These protection devices work in the following ways: The PTC device built into the cell acts as a protection to inhibit high current surges; the circuit interrupt device (CID) opens the electrical path if an excessively high charge voltage raises the internal cell pressure to 10 Bar (150 psi); and the safety vent allows a controlled release of gas in the event of a rapid increase in cell pressure. In addition to the mechanical safeguards, the electronic protection circuit external to the cells opens a solid-state switch if the charge voltage of any cell reaches 4.30V. A fuse cuts the current flow if the skin temperature of the cell approaches 90°C (194°F). To prevent the battery from over-discharging, the control circuit cuts off the current path at about 2.50V/cell. In some applications, the higher inherent safety of the spinel system permits the exclusion of the electric circuit. In such a case, the battery relies wholly on the protection devices that are built into the cell.

We need to keep in mind that these safety precautions are only effective if the mode of operation comes from the outside, such as with an electrical short or a faulty charger. Under normal circumstances, a lithium-ion battery will simply power down when a short circuit occurs. If, however, a defect is inherent to the electrochemical cell, such as in contamination caused by microscopic metal particles, this anomaly will go undetected. Nor can the safety circuit stop the disintegration once the cell is in thermal runaway mode. Nothing can stop it once triggered.

What every battery user should know

A major concern arises if static electricity or a faulty charger has destroyed the battery's protection circuit. Such damage can permanently fuse the solid-state switches in an ON position without the user knowing. A battery with a faulty protection circuit may function normally but does not provide protection against abuse.

Another safety issue is cold temperature charging. Consumer grade lithium-ion batteries cannot be charged below 0°C (32°F). Although the packs appear to be charging normally, plating of metallic lithium occurs on the anode while on a sub-freezing charge. The plating is permanent and cannot be removed. If done repeatedly, such damage can compromise the safety of the pack. The battery will become more vulnerable to failure if subjected to impact, crush or high rate charging.

Asia produces many non-brand replacement batteries that are popular with cell users because of low price. Many of these batteries don't provide the same high safety standard as the main brand equivalent. A wise shopper spends a little more and replaces the battery with an approved model. Figure 1 shows a cell that was destroyed while charging in a car. The owner believes that a no-name pack caused the destruction.

Figure 2: A cell with a no-brand battery that vented with flame while charging in the back of a car.

To prevent the infiltration of unsafe packs on the market, most manufacturers sell lithium-ion cells only to approved battery pack assemblers. The inclusion of an approved safety circuit is part of the purchasing requirement. This makes it difficult for a hobbyist to purchase single lithium-ion cells off-the-shelf in a store. The hobbyist will have no other choice than to revert to nickel-based batteries. I would caution against using an unidentified lithium-ion battery from an Asian source, if such cells is available.

The safety precaution is especially critical on larger batteries, such as laptop packs. The hazard is so much greater than on a small cell battery if something goes wrong. For this reason, many laptop manufacturers secure their batteries with a secret code that only the matching computer can access. This prevents non-brand-name batteries from flooding the market. The drawback is a higher price for the replacement battery. Readers of www.BatteryUniversity.com often ask me for a source of cheap laptop batteries. I have to disappoint the shoppers by directing them to the original vendor for a brand name pack.

Considering the number of lithium-ion batteries used on the market, this energy storage system has caused little harm in terms of damage and personal injury. In spite of the good record, its safety is a hot topic that gets high media attention, even on a minor mishap. This caution is good for the consumer because we will be assured that this popular energy storage device is safe. After the recall of Dell and Apple laptop batteries, cell manufacturers will not only try packing more energy into the pack but will attempt to make it more bulletproof.

Wireless communication typically use radio waves to communicate over short distances of a few feet to longer distances of many miles (or even up to millions of miles for deep space radio communication). However, techniques also include optical, sonic and electromagnetic induction.

Wireless communications involve numerous topologies. There are point-to-point devices using Bluetooth 3.0 and lower that only communicate directly with one other device (such as a smartphone and a Bluetooth earpiece). There are also point-to-multipoint, connecting a main device to multiple other devices (Wi-Fi and Bluetooth 4.0 and above).

Consider the following when choosing a wireless communication topology.

Compliance with local standards. Wireless compliance is much stricter than wired ones so are more difficult to pass. Radio compliance works on a few basic concepts. The device will only operate in the specific frequency allocated to that radio technology and may not interfere with other devices outside that frequency. It should not be interfered with by other devices operating in other frequency ranges. This is detailed in part 15 of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations. There are also rules regarding the maximum transmit power (EIRP), unique for each frequency range.

The FCC regulates product communications in the US. To sell a product, it must comply with standards and show the unique FCC ID on the product and packaging. In Europe, certification is approved through a self-certification CE marking that involves a number of harmonized standards. The specific European directive that deals with all products using the frequency spectrum is the Radio Equipment Directive (RED), previously R&TTE. Like FCC compliance, the CE mark must be shown on a product as proof of compliance for the European market.

FCC and CE are only two of the main certification standards. Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, Asia-Pacific, Africa, and South America all have their own, which must be met in order to legally operate a product there.

Different regional standards, and achieving what&#;s called a &#;type approval&#; for each, is a significant design and test burden. Creating a discrete wireless transceiver design requires specialized radio design expertise together with an investment in radio test equipment, adding significant cost and time to new product development. Consequently, rather than dealing with the challenges of EMI generated from high-speed digital circuitry and meeting stringent EMC product regulations, many engineering teams opt for a simpler approach to incorporating wireless connectivity.

It is typically a good idea to select pre-certified wireless modules during early product development to improve a reasonable time-to-market, without significant delays in getting radio compliance. Available modules can either be programmable, or need an external microcontroller/microprocessor to properly function. Many off-the-shelf modules also include an embedded or onboard antenna, reducing the number of unknowns and certification issues.

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It is possible at a later stage of development, closer to mass production, to consider developing a custom wireless solution. While it can be costly to develop and obtain the relevant certifications, the product cost can be reduced in larger volume situations. This may ensure initial production deadlines are met, and the product can be introduced and tested in the market before further investments are made.

There are a wide variety of wireless communication methods available in the marketplace. Each with it&#;s own advantages and disadvantages. Before choosing a possible module, clarify which of these technologies meets the demands of the target application.

• Bandwidth
• Distance
• Security
• Power
• Frequency

Bandwidth

Bandwidth focuses on the volume of data, how, and how frequently, it&#;s sent. Wi-Fi offers an always-on connection, data rates from 11 Mbps (802.11b) to 1.3 Gbps (802.11ac). Bluetooth 3.0 and 4.0 offer up to 25 Mbps up to 60 meters at full power, but aren&#;t always connected. Sigfox and LoRa, can transmit 12 bytes every 10 minutes, thus reducing power consumption and maximizing battery life.

Distance

Distance concerns the maximum distance between transmitter and receiver. Some technologies are better for short range like Bluetooth Smart (previously Bluetooth Low Energy). Other&#;s, like GPS, can receive signals from satellites orbiting the planet, thousands of kilometers away.

Security

Security, currently a hot topic for the Internet of Things (IoT) applications, and other wireless devices. Some wireless technologies solve this with strong encryption, negatively impacting battery life and often bandwidth. The important factors to consider include the sensitivity of the data, other devices on the same network, and the encryption provided by the wireless standard.

Power

Power is one of the most important aspects in selecting the correct module for a product. The difference between a battery operated device and an always-connected wall socket can significantly change how the device operates. A device that is always powered from a wall socket is much easier to design. Wireless products that run from batteries need to consider recharging, replacement or designing long-life power supplies. Initially, replacing a battery might appear a trivial task, but when a customer has many thousands of devices, such as an IoT sensor deployed in remote locations, the resources and subsequent cost required become significant.

Frequency

While the frequency is important, it is not necessarily the main criterion when selecting a wireless module. However, there may be some situations where there is saturation in a specific frequency band, or it may not be legal in certain circumstances for a product to operate in a specific frequency band.

There are many different names and technologies used in digital cellular networks for use with mobile devices like cell phones. It&#;s useful to know they are all just evolutions of each other. General packet radio service (GPRS) and enhanced data GSM evolution (EDGE) are second-generation technologies, also known as 2G. Their download speeds are 114 Kbps and 384 Kbps, respectively. 3G is the third generation of mobile telecommunications, and high speed down-link packet access (HSDPA) is an enhancement of this with download rates of 3.1 Mbps for 3G and 14 Mbps for HSDPA. Evolved high speed packet access (HSPA+) is a fourth-generation technology that allows up to 168 Mbps. 4G long term evolution (LTE) supports HD streaming and download speeds up to 299.6 Mbps.

One of the key things to note in choosing any GSM module is the ability to future proof a product. This means the developer only needs to design one PCB and swap the desired module into place, easily integrating voice and data connectivity to be deployed in any region or wireless network. As the network operators move to upgrade their infrastructure, they will eventually decide to stop supporting older technologies like 2G and 3G in favor of easier to maintain networks like 4G and upcoming 5G.

When looking to integrate any wireless module into a product, it&#;s important to review how communications with the host is established. UART and I2C are popular methods of interfacing, but often the availability of extra IO ports, such as GPIO and USB, aid the addition of other sensors and devices. Other features that should be considered include whether the desired communications protocol (FTP, HTTP, etc.) is supported, and increasingly important for IoT designs, the capability to update the module&#;s firmware over the air (FOTA). Security features such as crypto-authentication and encryption techniques are key to provisioning a secure communications link.

Wi-Fi and Bluetooth are two of the most popular wireless technologies in use. Wi-Fi is used by nearly every home and business as a method of connecting users to a local network and/or internet access. Bluetooth is used in a wide range of low-power devices from hands-free headsets to wireless speakers, mice, keyboards, printers, and many more. Whereas Wi-Fi is intended for high-speed communication on a local area network, Bluetooth is intended for portable equipment. They are often complementary technologies, and many modules come with both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth features.

LoRa and Sigfox are two similar wireless technologies that both work over the 868 MHz (EU) and 902 - 928 MHz (US) frequency bands. They operate in a similar fashion over the same frequency. They are used for low-power wide area networks (LPWAN) for wide range networks with very low data rates, making them ideal for the IoT applications. Sigfox is designed as an ultra-narrowband technology which can transmit up to 12 bytes every ten minutes at a distance of 30 - 50 km, and can receive up to four messages per day. LoRa, on the other hand, is designed more for a command and control scenario. The data packet size is still low, but can be defined by the user. There&#;s no limit on receiving data, and it has a reduced range of 15 - 20 km.

LoRa and Sigfox both operate in the industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio bands, which are normally reserved for use other than for telecommunications. That said, there are still modules that are developed for use in the ISM band. These modules usually use their own proprietary protocols for communication. The most common frequencies for these bands are 433 MHz, 863 MHz to 870 MHz (EU), 902 to 928 MHz (US) and 2.4 GHz to 2.5 GHz.

Some wireless networks don&#;t work on a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint system. Some wireless technologies like ZigBee, WiMAX and Bluetooth Mesh, operate on a many-to-many network. This means a device doesn&#;t need to be in range of the device it needs to talk to, as it can pass the signal through a network of similar devices to get to the end device.

A pre-compliant module can save significant costs for development and compliance testing. However, further testing of the new product before release into the market is still required. A module is pre-compliant in and of itself, but once it is added to another system or product, its behavior could be affected

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